Everyday Life in Byzantium Read online

  Yet even so, empresses rarely appeared in public and women of lesser rank hardly ever did so. However, empresses attended the official functions held in the palace, but they seldom took part in state processions or public festivities. In 481 Ariadne appeared wearing her state robes in the imperial box in the Hippodrome of Constantinople to address the people, but, until the eleventh century, none accompanied her husband when he went to the Hippodrome to attend the games. Like other women, however, empresses went to church regularly, like other women attending the services from the gallery, though occupying a special imperial pew. In the cathedral of Haghia Sophia it extended over the whole of the west end of the gallery. After a service it was customary for the emperor and empress to make their way to separate halls situated in the cathedral, where each was served with refreshments. When the empress and her ladies departed, to return to the palace, the emperor was conducted by the patriarch to the Holy Well—a structure close to the cathedral which was believed to contain the well where Christ met the woman from Samaria. There the emperor distributed gold pieces among the minor clerics and choir singers who had taken part in the service and then handed back to the patriarch the golden bag he had used for the purpose; then he resumed the crown which he had worn in the procession accompanying him as he left the palace for the cathedral, but which he had removed on reaching the Holy Well.

  Daughters generally counted for little in Byzantium; so little, in fact, that Romanus II (959-63) did not hesitate to relegate all five of his to a convent in order to please his new wife, the beautiful Theophanu. Princesses born in the purple, though less pampered than their brothers, were nevertheless valued, if only because they made useful brides for minor rulers whom the emperors wished to conciliate; in the tenth century one was even married off to a Mongol Khan.

  The emperor and his family spent the greater part of their free time within the grounds of their palaces; indeed, the womenfolk seldom ventured beyond them, the empress herself rarely did so. Within that large and sumptuous enclosure or compound the imperial family lived a close and intimate family life, meeting in private for meals and amusements. Byzantium’s royal residences did not, as in the West, consist of a large residential block situated in pleasure grounds and flanked by stables and domestic dependencies, but, as in the Orient, took the form of walled enclosures containing a large number of separate buildings dispersed amidst gardens and walks. Emperor Theophilus (829-42) was so passionate an admirer of Arabian culture that he laid out much of the western quarter of the Great Palace enclosure in the eastern style; a part of it was thereafter called the Persian House.

  13 Vogt’s reconstruction of the Great Palace district

  Until the twelfth century the Great (or Sacred) Palace in Constantinople served not only as the home of the reigning family but as the centre of the nation’s government for every public function, whether civil or religious, evolved at any rate in part within it; and every official, whether civil or military, had a position in court corresponding to his rank in the administration. The palace occupied a magnificent site extending along the sea front from the Hippodrome to the cathedral of Haghia Sophia and embracing the whole area occupied in later times by the palace of the sultans of Ottoman Turkey, the Saray. Its grounds sloped down to the sea walls and its views extended over the Sea of Marmora to the Golden Horn and, further eastward, to the opening of the Bosphorus, to embrace the coast of Asia and its hinterland. There were numerous buildings within the enclosure and Steven Runciman has aptly compared this great complex to Spain’s Escurial since, in both instances, in addition to the emperor’s dwelling and possessions, some of the Church’s most venerated relics and the nation’s most treasured antiquities were preserved within.

  Apart from seven palaces, the Constantinopolitan enclosure included the emperor’s official quarters, known as the Octagon. The empress’s official residence, known as the Pantheon, was situated near the church of St Stephen, which was in its turn attached to the Daphne Palace. Both the latter were used by the emperors on the most solemn occasions. The state throne-room was situated in the neighbouring Chrysotriclinium which, from late in the seventh century, was roofed with a dome. The throne, somewhat in the manner of an altar, stood in the apse forming the end of the great hall. The floor there was raised above the level of that in the body of the hall and was covered with a cloth of gold; the steps leading to the platform were of porphyry; the throne, like all the others used by the emperors, resembled a couch with a double head-board surmounted by a canopy; it was provided with a footstool. The conch of the apse above it was adorned with a glass mosaic representation of Christ, inscribed ‘King of Kings’. This throne-room remained the principal and most holy of all till the tenth century, and it housed the imperial regalia. It was furnished with two organs inset with jewels and it was there that the mechanical throne commissioned by Theophilus was set up, astonishing the ambassadors who saw it. Ranged behind the throne, in a semi-circle corresponding to that of the apse, stood the most distinguished members of the imperial bodyguard, grouped according to nationality; those whom the emperor wished particularly to distinguish were placed closest to him. A second circle of rather less important guardsmen stood behind them, all wearing armour; the third and last circle was made up of men of still lower rank, mostly, to use the Byzantine term, ‘Barbarians’, that is to say Varangians. As such, they did not wear armour but carried lances, shields, and single-edged battle-axes suspended from their shoulders.

  Theophilus did not admire the Golden Triclinium and in 838 built for himself the Triconchus Palace. It derived its name from the three domes with which he roofed it; it consisted of a hall divided into three parallel sections by columns, which served also to support the three domes. The building had three entrance doors, the centre one of which was made of silver and the other two of bronze. Theophilus’ throne probably stood under the central dome, with those of his wife and son on either side. The building is believed to have served as the model for the church of the Nea built within the palace enclosure in 881. In 1042, when Zoe and Theodora were joint rulers, Zoe’s throne was always placed a little in front of her younger sister’s. Near them, forming a semi-circle, stood Varangian guardsmen carrying the double-edged swords known as rhomphaia. Assembled within the semi-circle were the special favourites and courtiers of the empresses. All stood with their eyes fixed to the ground as a sign of respect.

  There were a great many more halls, conference chambers and state rooms within the palace enclosure, each of which was used for a specific series of ceremonies. Among the more important of these were the buildings known as the Onopodion (entrance hall to the Daphne Palace), the Chamber of Candidates (used by gentlemen-at-arms), the Excubitors’ Hall (the Excubitors were part of the palace guard who acted as an imperial militia), the Lychni (a circular, domed structure near the Tribunal where emperors were received when they visited the Tribunal), and above all the Chalke, a palatial structure giving access to all the buildings within the enclosure. From Justinian’s time the latter contained a domed chamber whose inner walls were faced with marble and whose ceiling was decorated with glass mosaic compositions. Two scenes took the form of imperial portraits: one showed Justinian alone, the other with Theodora; both must have resembled the magnificent, almost contemporary mosaic portraits of Justinian and Theodora which survive in Ravenna. On a line with the Chalice, but to the north of it, another gateway in the form of a pavilion connected the palace to the emperor’s box in the Hippodrome. This entrance was faced on its Hippodrome side with ivory panels which must have been quite the most impressive ever made out of this scarce and lovely material.

  Numerous churches and chapels were to be found within the palace enclosure. Among the most venerated were the oratory of St Theodore situated in or near to the Chrysotriclinium, the Sigma and the Baptistery. The famous lighthouse, the Pharos, which guided mariners safely into harbour and also sent signals to distant parts of the Empire by means of a relay system, stood on a promontor
y within the enclosure. So too did numerous essential offices and store-rooms as well as the silk looms and the imperial factories and workshops where luxury products of superb quality were made for the emperor’s personal use. The emperor’s personal stables, sheltering his chargers, riding horses and polo ponies, were close at hand; so too were those set aside for the racehorses used in the Hippodrome contests. These were situated close to the gates opening on to the race-track and were kept in impeccable condition, the gold trappings of each horse being displayed above its stall. The kennels sheltering the dogs and cheetahs used by the emperors when hunting deer or bears in Asia Minor, and the cages holding the falcons which he used when pursuing hares or game birds, stood close to his private zoo containing his remarkable collection of outlandish animals. Near by were his aviary, his armoury, his mint, his treasury, his archives. Some 20,000 retainers are believed to have been employed in the enclosure which also contained residences such as the Pearl Palace, where the imperial family resided in summertime, and others which they used only during the winter months; there were also residences which served particular purposes, such as the Purple Palace or the bridal suite in the Magnaura Palace, standing close to the waters of the Marmora. The latter was equipped with a bathroom used by the empress only during the three days following her wedding day when she was obliged to bath in it according to specially prescribed rules. Thus, on the last of the three days both factions were expected to assemble near the bathroom. To the playing of three organs clean linen, a box of perfume, caskets, ewers and basins were carried to the bathroom under the watchful eye of consuls; then the empress, walking between two of her ladies and followed by a third, each of whom carried a purple pomegranate studded with jewels, entered the bathroom. The terrace of the Magnaura Palace was decorated with statues; the last which is known to have been placed there was a bust of Emperor Phocas (602-10). The palace was abandoned in the ninth century and converted soon after into a university; the large hall in which the famous throne of Salomos had once stood served to make an excellent lecture hall. Its plan was similar to that of a three-aisled basilica terminating in a central apse. Many of the earlier emperors had preferred the Daphne Palace to the Magnaura. It was the oldest of all the buildings in the enclosure, dating back to the days of Constantine I, and could be reached from one of the main banqueting halls.

  14 Big game hunting

  15 The Blachernae Palace

  Only two ruins survive to give us some idea of the appearance of these buildings. Both are to be found in Istanbul. One, a portion of the Blachernae Palace, stands close to the north-eastern section of the city’s walls; the other, erroneously called the ‘House of Justinian’ rises from the edge of a cliff overlooking the Sea of Marmora; it dates from the eighth century. To judge from their appearance palace buildings must have borne quite a close resemblance to the façade of the building depicted in the early sixth-century wall mosaic in the church of San Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna or the ruined Roman houses of Ostia. Both ruins follow rectangular plans and are built on fairly severe lines. The Blachernae building was originally three storeys high, the ‘House of Justinian’ two. Both possessed large, well-proportioned windows which made the rooms pleasant to live in. They also prove, what can likewise be learnt from their art, that the Byzantines were keen observers of nature and lovers of its varied aspects. This is borne out by the character of the trees, flowers and rural scenes included in the magnificent marble floor mosaic adorning a sort of cloister or peristyle discovered in what was originally part of the Great Palace enclosure. The magnificent sites which were chosen by Byzantine monks for their monasteries were also governed by their love of nature.

  The main entrance to the Great Palace was through a magnificent pair of bronze gates. Within beat the heart of Byzantium in a setting of unimaginable splendour. By the sixth century, when Justinian set up there the bronze horses which he had brought from Ephesus, so many ancient works of art had been assembled within the enclosure that the area had become a veritable museum. From the eighth century the statues of emperors and of heroes of the Empire were regularly added to the collection. Many were set up near the Hall of Tribunals situated close to the main entrance gates, whence smaller halls led to a series of dining chambers. The finest of the dining halls held 19 couches and the gold plate used in it was kept in a building called the Castresiacon, which was entered by ivory gates, and which was entrusted to a senior official of the empress’s household. Another hall held 36 couches and one of the smaller ones 12; the banquet given in honour of the emperor’s birthday was held in the Triclinium of Justinian, where a ballet could be conveniently performed after the roast meat course. The largest table mentioned in surviving records was designed to hold 36 couches and was entirely made of gold. In the tenth century the German ambassador Liutprand was astonished on dining at court to find that all the guests were served off gold plate, and that the three gold bowls containing fruit were so immense and so heavy that they could not be lifted; they were therefore suspended from the ceiling by ropes encased in gilt leather attached to a mechanical device which enabled them to be moved from one guest to another.

  By the eighth century the emperors had begun to build new palaces. The Great Palace had become a trifle cumbersome and was beginning to fall out of favour. Already in the sixth century Justin II (565-78)—nicknamed the Noseless because his nose had been cut off as a punishment for conspiring against his sovereign—had started to use the Blachernae Palace in preference to the Great Palace. The Blachemae Palace was situated, as we have seen, at the opposite end of the town to the older palace, close to the church of the same name which had been built by Emperor Marcian (450-7) and his wife Pulcheria, but it was not until the end of the eleventh century that Alexius I Comnenus (1081-1118) decided to abandon the Great Palace in its favour. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the Blachernae Palace was admired for its marble courtyards, its great central hall made of porphyry and for the profusion of its gold decorations. Nevertheless, Alexius and his family lived in it in comparative simplicity and it was only in the reign of Manuel I Comnenus (1143-80) that the Blachernae became the centre of a gay court life. Manuel loved it and filled it with beautiful objects. He enjoyed entertaining and was eager to devise unusual ways of doing so. His parties were amusing and stimulating, for he often surprised his guests by the novelty of the diversions he arranged for them. Thus he was fond of organising tournaments of a western type and of inviting ladies to attend them. In 1204, when the Crusaders occupied Constantinople, sacking the city instead of attempting to rescue the Holy Land from the Muslims, they stripped the Blachernae of its magnificent contents, destroying the palace in the process. The Latins remained masters of Constantinople till 1261, when the Palaeologues re-entered the town and regained the Byzantine throne. By then, however, the emperors were reduced to relative poverty. By the end of the fourteenth century even at state banquets they were obliged to use pottery vessels in place of gold or even of silver ones. Indeed, the imperial family found itself so hard-pressed that Anne of Savoy, the wife of Andronicus III (1328-41), pawned her state jewels to the Venetians for a mere 30,000 ducats. She never managed to raise this comparatively small slim to reclaim them and so they remained the property of the Republic of St Mark.

  The gates of all the imperial palaces were regularly locked at three o’clock every afternoon and unlocked at dawn on the following day. The task of closing and opening them was entrusted to a head porter who was also an ordained priest. The imperial family’s private life started when they closed. During the warm summer evenings the men could indulge in such sports as archery, javelin-throwing or tennis, or watch boxing or wrestling matches. Constantine VIII revived the gymnopodia, a form of combat recalling gladiatorial fights. In the sixth century the games of chess and draughts were introduced to Constantinople from the Orient and were often played at court, Constantine VIII being an almost compulsive player of chequers and dice. In the ninth century Theophilus introduced the gam
e of polo from Persia. It quickly became popular in Byzantium; public matches were frequently played in the Hippodrome at Constantinople and in those of other towns. It remained so popular that in the thirteenth century, on the formation of the Trapezuntine Empire, a polo ground was especially laid out for the emperors of Trebizond. The Constantinopolitan emperors so enjoyed the game that many played it on their private polo grounds, but when the weather was bad jesters, dwarfs, mimes and acrobats were always at hand to entertain their imperial masters.